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If
you can grow pasture well:
Pasture
Is the cheapest way to feed for your
stock. It involves the least work.
Pasture has all the
nutrients for your stock: Protein,
sugars, fats, fibre, minerals & water. 
Pasture requires sunlight,
moisture, soil, and soil nutrients in order to grow.
Factors influencing pasture growth:
Sunlight hours & seasons:
The length of daylight & season greatly influence pasture growth.
Pasture, like other green plants, needs sunlight for photosynthesis.
Pasture plants also need some leaf remaining after grazing to enable
photosynthesis to occur.
The sunlight provides warmth, especially warming soil temperatures. Some pasture
plants will not grow
when soil temperatures are too cold.
You may notice grass growth is non existent or limited under a row (a shelter
belt) of thick trees.
This area is usually fertile as animals will use it as a camp site. The
"denuding" is because of limited sunshine.
Furthermore the tree roots compete for any moisture available. Weeds and
nuisance grass often flourish between your good
pasture and the area of "no growth".
Location:
Pasture on the flat usually receives maximum sunlight.
Some hilly areas may face the sun. Others "loose the sun early", or just receive
limited sun. Hilly areas are further
challenged by limited fertility. You may notice lush grass growing at the bottom
of the hill.
This area receives the "run off" of fertilizer, and topsoil brought down in the
rain.
Re-grassing, and fertilizing hilly areas are a further challenge. There are some
hills that are far too steep for vehicles. "High country
farmers" use aerial means of applying fertilizer.
(Moisture: see drought, Fertilizer: see soils)
Photosynthesis:
Put simply : Photosynthesis converts sunlight into energy.
Chlorophyll (a green pigment) gives the leaves their green colouring. It is
involved with photosynthesis.
IMost photosynthesis takes place in the leaves.
Structure of a
Grass Plant:
Below:
A labelled
photo of a young grass plant.
The basic structure of a grass plant is similar in all grasses.
The roots:
Water
and dissolved mineral nutrients in soil, enter the plant by the roots.
The
roots can act as storage.
The roots firmly anchor the plant in the ground.
In newly planted grass; the roots go deeply into the soil before the green of
the new
plant is observed.
The number of
tillers above the ground is closely related to the amount of root.
Root growth is influenced by the carbohydrates supplied by the leaves.
So when
conditions are ideal for rapid leaf growth, root growth is usually rapid.
Most rapid root growth does occur in winter and in spring, as long as
conditions
are favourable.
The Crown
(The main growth point):
This area
manufactures shoots, (tillers) and eventually seeds.
Clever isn’t it.
It is the main growth point at the beginning of the season. (The vegetative
stage)
During stem growth this growth point is pushed up.
It can eventually develop into a seed head.
It also acts as a storage organ for carbohydrates surplus.
Secondary growth
points:
These are at each node (the swollen part) and at the base of each leaf.
These growth points are responsible for growth in the leaf, sheath and also stem
growth.
Auxiliary buds in tillers/shoots.(not included in sketch) are undeveloped growth
points.
They will produce shoots of their own.
The Leaves:
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves.
Each new leave emerges from the sheath of older leaves, and it grows from
the
base
of the leaf. (The oldest part of the leaf is the top of the leaf.)
The bottom bit of the leaf forms a sheath which protects young shoots.
(see diagram
just above where "tiller or shoot" is printed) Sunlight and warm
temperatures
increase the emergence of new leaves.
Ligule:
A thin membrane found at the bottom of the leaf blade and sheath.
Most grasses have ligules. Ligules are different in each grass species, so
they can be used to identify the type of grass when there is no seed head.
The
Flower /seed head:
The forming of a flower
may begin in early spring (in ryegrasses).
Prior to "elongation" of the stem it
remains protected in the
leaf sheaths surrounding it. Seed head development, once started
(usually)
takes priority over the development of
tillers and new leaves.
Growth of tillers and leaves recommences when: The flower has been
removed, or the
flowering is finished.
Actual flowering "dates" are different for each grass species.
Flowering dates
are also influenced by growing conditions.
Stolons
& Tillers:
A tiller is a miniature of the parent plant.
When plant sugars are in an abundance, and new leaf development is accomplished
some grass species then develop rhizomes.
The formation of tillers is at it's most rapid during autumn, winter, and
spring. It ceases when the plant flower is growing.
(The rhizome goes underground as per the sketch) Rizomes originate from an
adventitious bud in the crown zone.
From the rhizome tillers are created. A stolon remains above the ground.
(Many soporiferous grasses are invasive & nuisance grasses)
Like rhizomes stolons originate from adventitious bud in the crown zone.
Grazing, and the intensity of light encourage tillers formation.
In Autumn farmers may use stock to "clean up the pasture" (Particularly pastures
which have not been hard grazed during the
year.) This involves encouraging stock to eat down, and to eat dead leaf
material.. Doing this encourages new grass tillers.
Ryegrass can produce many tillers. Cocksfoot & timothy produce fewer tillers.
The
lifespan of a tiller is influenced by conditions.
3 main
stages in grass's development.
1. The vegetative stage:
During grass's leafy stage of growth, the plant usually consists of a number of tillers, each with growing leaf
blades,
and leaf sheaths. In this stage its growing zone remains compact near the soil.
These leafy plants have a large amount of digestible cell contents, and
a high feed value.
Grazing management: Leaf area is needed for photosynthesis, so there needs
to be leaf area left after grazing.
2. Elongation / transition stage > leading
to the Reproductive Stage;
This is influenced by the longer
daylight hours and warmer temperatures.
During
late spring a shoot within each tiller will rapidly elongate at the
upper
internodes, (ie in between the nodes)
The elongation becomes the stem (or
culm.)
3.
Flowering stage/reproductive stage:
A flower emerges from within the top leaf sheath (the flag leaf). A seed head then develops.
Seed development and pollination follow.
The Lower internodes do not elongate and remain at the base of the plant.
The lower nodes, internodes and
dormant buds, together with related tillers, form the crown of the plant.
*Stems contain lignin which can't be digested by ruminants. Feed wise,
during elongation
or reproductive stage the feed value is lower.
_____________________________________________________
The structure of a Clover Plant:
Clovers
are made up of a series of stems called stolons which grow along the top of the
soil.
The clovers growing points are found at the end of a stolon.
Nodes:
The leaves, roots, and buds all develop from nodes.
Nodes and stolons:
Lie close to the ground, and are thus
protected when animals graze.
After the clover leaf is eaten the
stolon provides energy for new leaf growth.
Each stolon can produce more stolon branches resulting in a network of of
stolons covering the ground.
The stolon is morel likely to branch if it can have light to it.
In winter the clover leaf size is generally smaller than in summer.
The stems are usually shorter in winter also.
Common Pasture Grasses:
Cocksfoot,
(or Orchard grass):
 Cocksfoot
( < photographed)
Is a hardy & productive grass.
In New Zealand it is a popular choice for "summer dry" locations. It
has an extensive root system which
is possibly why it can tolerate dryer conditions.
It does not fare so
well with very heavy grazing.
It does not require such fertile soil for growth.
It can tolerate
some shade.
When planted, it is a little slower to establish than other
grasses species.
However once it is well established it is somewhat clumpy, and when sown
in a "mixed grass species"
pasture, it's growth style means it can shadow other desirable pasture
plants.
To maintain it's palatability farmers "top it"..(Reduce it's
height by mowing the top of the pasture plants)
It doesn't cope so well
on poorly drained soils, or salty soils.
It has rapid growth during
warmer months, but growth slows or becomes dormant during the cool
months.
It (arguably) lacks some palatability. It is prone to grass grub.
-Brome
Grasses:
Prairie
Grass
(bromus willdenowii)
A palatable cool season grass with upright growth. It is large leafed.
It is short lived.
ME is adequate in all stages of its maturity. Animals find the the "flower
head" to be palatable.
It offers good winter > early spring growth. It is reasonably drought
tolerant.
It needs fertile soil, free draining soil and nitrogen for its growth.
The PH needs to be above 5.5 (It wont tolerate being water logged, nor
it's soil being pugged.)
It is usually planted with a mix of grasses because of its low iodine and
magnesium content.
It is not suited to a rotation which is less than 28 days.
Grazing
Brome;
(Bromus stamineus)
Related to Prairie grass. It is a perennial. It will tolerate close grazing,
but it needs frequent close grazing to perform well.
It produces quality winter and summer feed. It wont tolerate wet heavy
soils.
Pasture
Brome:
(Bromus valdivianus)
It is a perennial. It is more persistent than prairie grass under grazing.
Winter growth is only moderate, but spring summer growth is strong.
It ideally needs free draining soils, but it does tolerate higher rainfalls
than other bromes. It is drought tolerant.
Upland
Brome:
(Bromus sitchensis)
It can provide nutritional feed in flat or rolling dryer upland areas who
experience cold winters, and warm summers.
It is short lived. It is a perennial.
Smooth Brome:
(bromus inermis)
This brome is spread by rhyzomes. It develops into thick persistent pasture
tolerant to hard grazing.
Ideal for high country regions with cool winters & hot summers.
-Rye
Grasses:
Perennial
Ryegrass:
(Lolium perenne L):
New Zealand's most common grass.
Ryegrass grows best with ground temperatures between 5 & 18 degrees
centigrade.
It is not suitable for very hot temperatures, nor very severe
winters.
It establishes quickly after sowing (if conditions are right). I've
heard it's seeds referred to as
"throw and grow" seeds. This refers to "broadcasting" the seeds over bare
soil. (broadcasting: see below)
Perennial rye grass is highly digestible, and very palatable to animals.
It has a rapid re-growth after grazing, even after heavy grazing!!
There are many many ryegrass cultivars to select from if re
grassing.
Italian
Ryegrass
(lilium
multiflorum)
These are large leafed. They produce well for up to 3 years.
It is often used in high fertility soils and provides good cooler
temperature growth.
Hybrid
ryegrasses:
(lolium perenne
x L multiflorum)
These are bred from perennial and Italian rye grasses.
They are most usually combined with other ryegrass in a seed mix.
Also:
See ENDOPHYTE
Tall
Fescue.
(festuca arundacea Schreb):
Requires a fairly fertile soil, even poorly drained soils!!.
Is tolerant of soils of all alkalinity/acidity.
This long rooted, cool season grass is also hardy, aggressive, nutritious, and
drought tolerant.
Basically its an all purpose grass.
Sometimes it is mixed with other grasses, but NOT ryegrass, as ryegrass
dominates.
It needs to be managed to minimize seed head production (grazing & topping) and
maintain quality pasture.
It is a choice when planting to control soil erosion.
Endophyte is NOT present in certified tall fescue seeds sold in NZ.
For "Older" and wild tall fescue see
ENDOPHYTE
"Less
desirable" & "nuisance" grasses.
Yorkshire
Fog
(holcus Lanatus):
Arguably this hairy leafed grass has some nutritional merit, but unfortunately
stock don't like the 'feel' of 'furry' leaves.
It is considered a nuisance grass.
Barley
Grass:
.(Hordeum
leporinum) Also called
wild barley, wall barley, mouse barley.
This is a common "nuisance" grass.
It's
spread: It catches in animal fur/hair/wool, and this enables its seed to be
transferred. It's sharp seeds have been
known to burrow into skin, eyes and the mouth of sheep.
Control:
Graze closely
when the plants are young. Mow prior to seed head formation. These methods
helps
limit it's seed formation.
Herbicides: Glyphosate. Try pouring boiling water over the
plants.
Cultivate
Browntop:
(agostis tenuis) It has low feed value.
It is common especially in dryer districts, and on less
fertile soils.
Kikuyu grass
(Pennisetum clandestinum):
This tropical, drought tolerant grass enjoys moist, warm, frost free conditions,
plus soils with some fertility.
It spreads by stolons and rhizomes. It will tolerate being waterlogged. It is
winter dormant.
Legumes:
Why legumes?
We need Legumes because they form a symbiotic association with the soil bacteria
(rhizobia) to convert
atmospheric nitrogen to a plant available form. (Grasses depend on nitrogen.)
Legumes are high in protein, and are
palatable, so they increase the digestibility of the pasture. *Some legumes
cause bloat in ruminants.
Birdsfoot
Trefoil:
This is a long lived leafy perennial. It reseeds itself, usually taking about 2
years to become fully
established. It grows in almost all soils. It is not winter hardy. Tall pasture
species may shade it. (Birdsfoot Trefoil needs
to be inoculated with a specific rhyzobium if planted for the first time.) It is
a non bloating legume.
Birdsfoot trefoil is not particularly common in NZ
Lucerne or Alpha alpha.
(medicago sativa):
The oldest known cultivated forage crop. It is popular in crop rotations
As it's salt content is very low, stock need access to salt. It can cause bloat.
However it is very nutritious and tasty to stock. (see the table below re it's
feed value)
Because of its ability to fix nitrogen, improve soil structure, and control
weeds in subsequent crops.
Normally this is a very persistent plant, and can grow rapidly in ideal
situations.
It dislikes acid, and poorly
drained soils.
It is Not drought tolerant, and almost dormant in cold winters.
Lucerne is often used as a hay, or silage crop.
-The Clovers:
Clover has a a higher carbohydrate content
than grass.
Their essential mineral content is higher (eg Magnesium) than grasses.
The clover leaf is tastier than grass leaf..
Clover grows best with soil temperatures between 8 degrees to 23 degrees
centigrade.
* * See also Bloat. * *
There are many clover cultivars available in New Zealand.
Red Clover:
(trifolium pratense):
This is a tap rooted plant. It is not compatible with hard continuous grazing,
but
is OK for rotational grazing. It has a high summer production. Older species of
red clover have a high oestrogen content.
Eating large amounts of this clover is not recommended for breeding stock. It
persists for 2 to 7 years
Subterranean Clover: This is an annual clover regenerating from seed each
autumn. Lax grazing is required over the
flowering season to help its seed production. It can produce well over winter or
spring if the conditions are ideal.
White Clover
(Trifolium
repens):
White clover is a perennial legume.
White clover is a VERY important plant in farming.
Experimentally dairy cows have produced well on clover alone.
** (See the chart below) **
It will not tolerate extremes of cold, heat, salty soils, or moisture
deprivation.
New plants need to have developed a strong root system prior to extremes in
weather.
This plant spreads by creeping stolons. (see clover diagram) It may also spread
by seedling from the flower.
It is always planted in combination with a grass species, thus improving the
feed value for stock.
White clover
can be grazed in rotation or continuously.
Management of
Clovers:
There can be competition between clovers and vigorously growing grass during
grasses vegetative stage.
Grazing/clipping/topping helps prevent the clover from becoming shaded.
As with grass, grazing close to the ground in late autumn encourages white
clover to produce more stolons.
The clover leaf is MORE palatable to cattle than a grass leaf, so stock will
actually graze the clover in
preference to grasses.
In pastures for dairying there is a suggestion that pastures could have more
than a 40% clover content.. (see bloat)
Clovers are very important to
pasture.
Nutrition-wise they improve pasture feed quality.
Experiments have proven that a clover can contribute to animal
weight gain, and milk production.
The energy that clover provides is said to be more efficiently used.
Nitrogen fixing ability:
The clover provides nitrogen for
other pasture plants to grow.
Legumes differ from grasses because they produce their own nitrogen through a
symbiotic relationship with
certain soil bacteria.
(They convert atmospheric nitrogen to a plant available form)
The legumes, by
producing more nitrogen than
required means nearby grasses are supplied with nitrogen.
Most legumes have broad leaves.
Clovers increase the palatability and digestibility of pastures.
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Animal Feed:
The terms used.
Maintenance
Requirement:
Is the amount of food required to keep the animal alive.
Voluntary Intake:
Is the amount of food the animal chooses to eat.
It can decrease (because of the enlargening uterus in pregnancy,
or it can increase in pregnancy.
Ruminant digestion provides warmth for the animals' bodies.
So: In cold weather they'll eat more, and less in very hot weather.
The brain (responding to the stimuli from other body organs especially its
digestive system actually sets
the voluntary intake.
Dry Matter (DM):
The feed after evaporation. (No moisture or green matter present)
Gross Energy (GE):
The total energy concentration in feeds.
In ruminants only a small amount of gross energy will become body tissue for
growth, cell replacement, the foetus or milk.
Metabolisable Energy: (ME)
The digestible energy eaten, minus energy lost in urine and methane.
(The measurement for energy in ruminants is a joule, this equals about 0.240
calories)
DM & ME of common feeds
(approx):
Note:
DM as a percentage. ME = mega joule per KG of DM
Minerals listed as
g/kg of DM
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Pasture: Grass & clover
|
DM
|
M E |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
| Leafy Spring
Pasture |
14 |
11.8 |
6.0 |
4.5 |
1.5 |
| Leafy Summer
Pasture |
20 |
10.0 |
8.5 |
4.0 |
2.0 |
| Summer pasture (dry &
stalky) |
25 |
8.0 |
7.0 |
3.0 |
2.0 |
|
Cut Pasture |
DM |
ME |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
| Silage: Best
quality |
23 |
10.0 |
7.0 |
4.3 |
1.7 |
| Silage: Poor quality |
28 |
8.0 |
5.5 |
2.8 |
1.4 |
| Hay: Good quality. |
85 |
9.7 |
8.0 |
4.0 |
2.0 |
| Hay: Medium quality |
85 |
8.5 |
6.0 |
3.5 |
1.9 |
| Hay: Poor quality |
85 |
7.3 |
4.0 |
3.0 |
1.8 |
|
Legumes: |
DM |
ME |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
| Red Clover (spring) |
17 |
11.5 |
11.0 |
3.5 |
3.0 |
| White Clover |
15 |
12.2 |
12.0 |
4.0 |
3.0 |
| Alphalpha / Lucerne:
leafy |
18 |
12.0 |
16.0 |
3.0 |
2.5 |
| Alphalpha / Lucerne
flowering: |
23 |
10.0 |
13.0 |
2.8 |
2.0 |
Pasture:
-Re-growth, & Nutrition:
The amount of re-growth the plant has
(providing growing conditions are ideal) is related to the amount of leaf area
remaining after eating, topping, or mowing.
If only a small amount of leaf is eaten by animals, then sufficient leaf remains
for photosynthesis to proceed.
The plant replenishes the carbohydrates stores in the leaf, and root growth
continues.
If grasses can be maintained in a leafy state, their palatability, and nutritive
value is higher than grass in its
reproductive stalky flowering state.
Pasture
Management:
"Off with it's head" (Topping,
clipping, mowing:)
 Seed
heads are not as nutritious as leafy pasture (see "summer dry" and "stalky
pasture
in the above table.)
Cattle know that leaf is
tastier than
stalks.
When topping the plan is to prevent the seed heads from emerging.
So ideally pastures are
first topped in early seed head development.
Doing this can increase the number of shoots. (You can learn a lot
from your lawn.)
The topper needs to be adjusted for each paddock.
In answer to: Top before, or top after cattle have grazed out a paddock?
A group of dairy farmers compared daily milk solids figures and times of
topping.. They came to the conclusion that
it didn't matter if topping was done prior to, or after grazing. It also
meant that once the topper was on the tractor
it made sense to do several paddocks at once.
How animals eat:
Sheep:
 Graze
selectively and have a preference for short lush feed, rather than taller
plants.
Young
and older sheep have difficulty competing with greedy mature ewes.
Separating these groups is beneficial
to both.
Sheep use their lips and teeth when eating. The teeth on the lower jaw and a pad
on the
upper jaw cut through the grass leaves.
This means they can eat closer to the ground. Sheep are selective grazers,
usually choosing
the part of the plant which is more digestible.
Goat:
Similar to sheep. They also use their lower jaw against a strong pad on the
upper lip. The upper lip is very flexible,
and with their strong tongues they can selectively grab, aiming at the more
comfortable part of a thorny
or spiky plant. They enjoy roses, and your unprotected young trees, so beware.
They will also stretch up tree trunks with their fore
legs in order to reach those tasty leaves. They are very selective eaters.
Cattle:
Will graze the tastiest plants in pasture first. Their preference: Grasses
rather than legumes, and ryegrass rather
 than
other grass species. Their intake is influenced by the amount of feed you
allocate
them.Cattle have amazing long and very
flexible tongues. (tongues that can even flip open a
hook gate!!!) When eating they firmly twist their tongue around a selected plant
and
with a tug, that portion of plant is ripped away.
Cattle seldom graze closer than 2 inches (5 cm) from the ground.
Their huge rumen allows cattle to gorge themselves for several hours at a time.
Later, when relaxed, they regurgitate, chew it finely, then re swallow it.
(Chewing the
cud, or ruminating). It is said that if a dairy cow is sitting 3 hours after it
has started
its fresh "break" (pasture) It is well fed.
Animal Urine and faeces:
Photo: Pasture; The darker green areas
are "Urine patches".
Urine and returns Potassium and Nitrogen to the soil.
Faeces returns Phosphate, Magnesium and Calcium.
'Camp sites:' Or where stock enjoy lazing, (in shade, or near water usually)
benefit from dung and urine 'donations'
(at the expense of the rest of the paddock). There may be advantages in
spreading these 'deposits', by harrowing,
raking, or breaking up these clumps with a weight (towed by a vehicle) allowing
'deposits' to break down more rapidly.
Avoid Overgrazing:
|
|
Overgrazing
is:
When stock start eating down to the base of your grass plants.
*With
little leaf left for photosynthesis, the plants growth slows.
The situation worsens if what little remains of the leaf is
continually removed. The plant tries to grow the leaves at the expense
off its roots. The plant weakens, and plant death may occur.
*Overgrazing
causes the soil to be exposed:
With soil exposed, weed seeds have a great opportunity to germinate.
*Ground
moisture vanishes by evaporation.
The soil, unprotected by foliage, looses more moisture.
The nearly bare soil is now exposed to the wind which will result
in more moisture loss, and in light soils and heavy wind the soil may
become airborne.
In a
drought situation:
Long rooted weeds may reach the seed stage.
Warmth, wind, and bare soil are ideal for the spread and
germination of weed seeds.
|
*Endophyte:*
The
endophyte is a fungus that lives inside the grass plant.
Grass and
endophyte have a symbiosis: Endophyte increased grass growth, and resistance to
some insects,
(eg Argentine stem weevil) There are no visible signs that the plant has
endophyte.
The
endophyte produces toxins (or poisons) which can harm the livestock who have
eaten great amounts of it.
Tall fescue and perennial ryegrass can be infected. These two grasses have very
different endophytes from each other.
The toxins produced are very different also. E.g. In ryegrass the major toxin is
lolitrem B
In tall fescue the major toxin is ergovaline.
In Ryegrass Staggers:
(Signs and Symptoms:)
With Lolitrem B the animal's central nervous system is affected. A noticeably
stiff, or difficult walk may be seen.
When severe, the animals may have difficulty standing.
In Tall Fescue Staggers:
(Signs and Symptoms)
Ergovaline is a vasoconstrictor which causes heat stress in the animals by
constricting the blood vessels.
Simply, the animal cannot cool itself.
Immediate Treatment:
Remove the animals from your high endophyte paddock. Symptoms disappear within
2-3 days usually.
Don't be concerned if they last much longer. Also these toxins have been known
to:
Reduce feed intake in sheep and cattle. Reduce the growth in suckling lambs.
And increase the likelihood of fly strike in sheep.
Endophytes: and Farmer Management:
Concentrations of lolirem B are the lowest in fresh green leaves.
Toxin levels are highest during the reproductive stage of the grasses maturity.
Reduce the risk of staggers by pasture management: Top/or mow to prevent a large
number of seed heads forming.
Use endophyte free ryegrass in new pastures. Or sow a combination of pasture
species if re-grassing.
For more information:
http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/p239.pdf
GRAZING your STOCK
Rotational
Grazing:
Above..
the diagram shows "rotational grazing".
The farm is divided into paddocks (eg numbered, in the diagram). Stock are on
each paddock in the rotation
for a brief period..(3 days, 2 days, a day)
Rotation length (ie how long it takes the stock to rotate the farm) may depend
on the type of stock, the
size of the farm, and importantly, the season of the year (which influences the
speed of grass growth)
Pasture needs time to re-grow and become leafy after stock have grazed it.
Spring weather encourages rapid grass growth so: Either the rotation has fewer
days, or paddocks are "shut up"
ie: reserved for silage or hay.
Winter time when pasture growth has slowed, the rotation length is extended by
dividing paddocks into several sections
with an electric fence.
The aim is to have pasture leafy when stock return to the paddock.
If the rotation length is too long: The long grass leaves will shade out other
pasture leaves. (leaves need sunlight for
photosynthesis)
If the rotation is too short, the pasture may be well chewed down, and growth
rate will slow. (Next rotation there
may be even less pasture for stock.. So either;
-Slow the rotation.
-Have less stock on,
-Encourage grass growth by increasing the soils fertility, or by apply some
nitrogen.
With rotational grazing, the pasture is eaten more evenly.
Paddocks are given a time to freshen results in greater dry matter
production.
Set
Stocking:
(above.. a diagram showing "set
stocked" cows...)
With set stocking there are only a
few animals per paddock/field.
The animals are moved about occasionally.
Set stocking is used on some sheep farms when there is an abundance of feed.
With such low stocking rate it can waste a lot of grass. As animals prefer
to eat their
"favourite", or the most palatable pasture it results in uneven pasture quality.
In winter, particularly wet winters there will be less pasture pugging.
Animals will have "campsites" a shaded or sheltered spot.
Paddock soil fertility becomes uneven, because of urine and faeces deposited in
these 'campsites" only.
If pasture is infected with parasites, set stocked animals are continually
exposed to them.
Break
fencing/Break feeding:
(above: The diagram shows a herd in a
"break")
Stock must have adequate water with each break.
Either a portable trough is used, or a laneway (using an electric fence) is made
so stock can have access to the trough.
Above in the diagram:
The paddock has been partitioned into several equal sections by using an
electric fence.
There is a fence separating both fresh pasture, and previously grazed pasture.
Back fencing is important, to allow eaten, trodden on, urinated, defecated and
possibly a little pugged pasture to freshen,
and grow.
Above is an example of break fed NZ dairy cows during our cool poor grass growth
winters..
With each portion of saved pasture they also get hay to eat.
 If
the herd is calving in very early spring
then magnesium powder is sprinkled over
the pasture. This is to supply animals
with the vital magnesium..
Magnesium is not plant available during this
slow plant growth period.
Strip
Grazing/Crop Grazing.
Is basically similar to break feeding.
The terms usually refers to animals who are given a small "break" in a paddock
sewn in crop, or saved pasture
(as in deferred grazing.) The major difference between break feeding and
strip/crop grazing
is these animals get to spend only a couple of hours on a break. They are then
returned to their regular paddock.
"Deferred grazing" allows the farmer to have feed available if anticipating a
period of low pasture growth some
months ahead. (The "long term" weather report is a guide)
On/Off grazing:
(Cattle) Some farmers use a 'sacrifice paddock' for their stock during very wet
weather.
A "sacrifice" paddock is usually the worst paddock on the farm.. A paddock whose
pasture is for renewal come spring.
Hay may be fed out on this paddock. Cattle can chew the grass right down to the
roots!!.
Hoof damage (pugging) will be ploughed over and re-grassed the next season.
During very wet weather cattle may be taken to a fresh break of pasture to
"strip/crop graze" it.
This minimizes pasture & soil damage in a valuable paddock, for after 3 hours on
the fresh pasture they are then returned
to their sacrifice paddock.
In cattle this method creates quite a soil fertility transfer.. (They're eat
elsewhere, but relieve themselves on the
sacrifice paddock. )
The sacrifice paddock can become quite mucky.. Avoid having cows in these
conditions so close to calving.
It can predispose to mastitis.
If soil potassium levels (K) become too great. (Potassium is excreted in urine)
it can predispose the calving cow to
metabolic problems.
If cattle are resting after 3 hours of grazing, it is considered that they have
eaten sufficient.
Improving the growth of your Pasture:
*Increase
the fertility of your soil:
You can do a soil test, then increase the soil fertility as per the
recommendations.
Better soil fertility will increase pasture growth. Better pasture growth will
crowd out some weeds.
*Re-grassing:
For old pasture and
pasture with less desirable species:
Renewing your pasture with vigorous growing new grasses will increase your
production. It can be expensive.
You will have less paddocks in your rotation while awaiting your new pasture to
becomes strong enough to cope with
animals eating it.
If
you decide to regrass:
Search "pasture seed mixes" on your countries own search engine. .. Your Local
Pasture seeds supplier will have pamphlets
describing the benefits of choosing 'such 'n' such' seed.
There are many types of grass, and clover cultivars for you to choose from.
You then have to select from seed mixes, or seeds which are compatible
with your climate, and your type of farming.
**
CHOOSE CERTIFIED SEEDS.
*Drain damp soil:
Well drained paddocks have a faster re-growth. Heavy stock will pug damp areas.
*Aerate your soil:
(see fertilisers and soil)
*Grass Grub: Do you have grass
grub? Do you have you patches of grass with dead leaves?
Try this test:
Tug at a few blades of grass. If the top of the plant comes away in your hand,
clearly some grub has been eating
away at its roots. Non chemical methods include: rolling the paddocks with
a very heavy roller. (Your contractor
may be able to help) and Mob stocking, Grouping your heavy cattle together in a
small area. Their weights crush the grub.
There are chemicals available to rid your pastures of those grubs.
Pasture Renewal:
To replace your low producing grass
species with high producing grass species, there is merit in killing off the old
undesirable
pasture first. You can plough, then direct drill. (a method producing the best
results)
Paddocks exposed to the winds:
Think carefully about ploughing first: Heavy winds, can easily uplift your
topsoil.
. In fact I've seen the air go nearly black, as the top soil from a newly
ploughed paddock is uplifted and distributed by the wind.
Spray, then direct drill:
This is a very popular 'no till' method. The herbicide Glycosphate
(it has several other names) is sprayed over the old pasture.
A penetrant can be added to the glycosphate to ensure stubborn weeds
are killed off. With pasture that has a history of
weeds, with this method it gives the least chance of disturbing
the weed seeds
in the soil.
The old plant remnants form a shade for emerging new grass shoots on very hot
days. Eventually the new shoots will tower
above the old decaying grass, and the latter mentioned will contribute to the
soils fertility.
Broadcast bare spots in spring and autumn:
It is the least expensive way of regressing, but the results are seldom
fantastic!!!.
However it is ideal for grassing a few 'bald' patches
in the paddock.
(Rye grass seeds have been called "throw and grow" seeds.
The tendency is to be quite generous with the grass seed to make
allowances for the poor "take" by
the seeds. Think carefully before broadcasting a large area, other methods may
be more successful.
Over-sewing Existing Pasture:
(No herbicides No ploughing)
Direct drill the new seeds (grasses, clover, or a mix of both) into ground.
1. Put your animals on the paddock prior to the new leaves emerging, to
eat down existing plants so they wont shade new plants.
2. Encourage the emerging new plants growth with fertilizer, or an
application of nitrogen (or both).
3.Do a 'pull test' to make sure the new plants are strong enough to cope,
prior to letting your stock feed from the paddock.
Your New Grass:
Often
farmers will apply fertiliser when the grass leaves
are just emerging, Often nitrogen is added to this fertiliser.
'Pull Test' for new plants:
If the roots stay put, and the leaves break
away when you tug at
them, then its time to think about putting your stock on to graze.
Calves are best for the first rotation.
Ryegrass benefits from a short sharp defoliation, and this
encourages the plant to tiller. It also prevents the slower to
establish
clovers from being smothered.
New grasses should be grazed when pastures are dry, and
your stock are not too hungry.
Don't feed out hay on new pasture:
Frequently older pastures are cut for hay. If hay is full of old
grass seeds, and perhaps some weeds.
By NOT feeding out hay on your new pasture you are protecting
the new grass from contamination by weed seeds, and
seeds from less desirable pasture. |
Your pasture &
challenging weather:
Drought:
Your pasture is very very important. Beware of
having your pastures eaten 'right down' because pastures, with little leaf
remaining, will struggle to grow, even after a good wetting, Slow your stock
rotation right down. Instead of a
e.g. 30 day rotation divide your paddocks into 4 with an electric fence. Each
time you give stock a new break, feed out
a portion of your stored supplements. (hay or baleage.) You may need to purchase
more hay/baleage to see you through
the months ahead. (winter)
If feeding meal to normally pasture fed animals, remember, ruminants need time
to build up digestive microflora.
Give them small amounts daily at first, then gradually increase the amounts you
feed them.
When rain finally arrives:
You'll need a substantial amount of rain!! Keep stock on a 'sacrifice paddock'
if you can. Or give stock small breaks and
feed out supplements. (Stock may loose some condition.)
Your pasture requires plenty of time to build up. Urea will help with grass
growth here. The new shoots grow first but at the
expense of the roots. When you have masses of strong rapidly growing grass, the
stock can make up for any loss of condition.
Weeks of cool wet weather:
Cool ground temperatures will slow your grass growth. Sunlight is needed for
grass growth, and for drying up your soils.
Heavy cattle hooves can pug up your soils. Use a sacrifice paddock, and
supplements, fed out on the sacrifice paddock.
Give stock a 3 hour break in a paddock of reserved grass, until the paddocks are
much drier.
____________________________________________________________
Weeds:
Avoid weed invasion by having a high
pasture plant population, and rapidly growing pasture. (by good soil fertility)
Avoid any soil, and pasture damage.
Herbicides:
These are usually kept under lock and key at your farm supplies retailers.
Pamphlets are available to describe their uses, doses, precautions, and when to
use.
Take care with the poisons at home. They should be locked up at your property
also.
http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/hs/pesticides/pah.pdf
http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/hs/pesticides/pahtr.pdf
*When using herbicides:
Work in with the "kill speed" of
the herbicide, and the rotation of your stock.
The kill speed is also influenced by the growing conditions. When conditions are
ideal for plant growth, the
"kill speed" will be quicker than when plant growing conditions are slow.
Some herbicides work quickly, others slowly.
With "fast kill" herbicides you'll notice the weeds have wilted the day
following their spray.
With these herbicides, follow behind your stock. The wilted weeds can be more
palatable to your stock.
Other herbicides (Escort is one) take a lot longer to show as dying.
'Weed wiping
or wetting':
This method is popular with taller weeds. It uses an applicator soaked in the herbicide.
Escort is a herbicide frequently used for weed wiping. This herbicide
"kills" with only a "dab" of solution on the plant.
Weed wiping is done after the stock have thoroughly eaten " down" the pasture in
the paddock.
This leaves the the weeds standing tall amongst the "eaten down" pasture.
The "wiper" applicator machine is dragged over, and touches the tall
weeds, without damaging the pasture.
It's a popular choice for killing: Californian thistles and ragwort.
Some have used it for giant buttercup.
Spot Spraying:
Ideal for a few weeds: You'll need a
back pack or similar, protective clothing, and a fine day without any wind.
Read the instructions on the pack.
There are advantages in spraying before the weed grows too large.
Spray as carefully as you can because: Some weeds need to be fully covered with
the spray. Many spays will damage,
or kill your clover. And some sprays can contaminate the ground for several
months after spraying.
There may be advantages of adding a dye to the herbicide to identify which weeds
you have sprayed.
Prills:
Here you damage the plant first, then
pour a few prills on the raw area of the plant. In a handy container you
can take the prills around the farm with you "prilling" whenever you notice a
weed. Prills are ideal for Scotch thistles.
Boiling water poured over weeds:
Some Common Weeds:
-The Thistles:
Californian Thistles:
"Calli's" have a great underground "creeping" network of
roots: This explains why they grow in clusters.
The plants vanish over winter, but their healthy roots system sends a new lot of
weeds up next spring.
Their prickles make it uncomfortable for close grazing by stock.
"Killing Calli's":
Constant mowing, or topping to stop foliage developing is a method often used by
dairy farmers.
Boom spraying with the correct herbicide during the growing stage.
Using a weed wiper or similar.
http://www.c-dax.com/efx/include/common/category.asp?country=NZ&CatID=21
This photo illustrates a C-dax weed wiper..
Pasture is grazed down prior to using the weed wiping.
The applicator is soaked, or loaded with a herbicide. It is "dragged" over the
tall weeds.
Nodding thistles:
Spot spraying works well. Biological Control insects are working well in some
parts of the country:
Scotch Thistle:
The scotch thistle has been credited with helping the Scots fend off invasion by
the Vikings.
The invading Vikings reportedly met up with scotch thistles, and their
cries of pain alerted the Scots..
who sent the Vikings packing!!
Windblown scotch thistle seeds are a very familiar site.
Methods of eradication include: Goats will eat scotch thistle.
Digging out.. It may mean digging into the ground, but make sure all the leaves
have gone. Do this prior to the plant
going to flower to reduce the likelihood of seeds spreading.
Spraying: most well known herbicides are effectively control scotch thistle.
Weeds
with YELLOW flowers!!
Ragwort:
senecio jacobaea
This weed is poisonous to animals.. Clinical signs may only show after an animal
been eating it for a long period
 of
time. Cattle don't like it's taste.
Methods of killing ragwort include:
Boom spraying with a clover friendly herbicide in early spring.
Spot spraying & weed wiping, are also effective
ways.
Pull the ragwort when it has reached the flowering stage.. This does make the
ragwort disappear
quickly (especially if your fit!!) The plants, after frying out a bit, are then
burnt.
BUT: Be aware:
1. You may leave some root in the ground, and the plant can grow from there.
Disturbed ragwort can rapidly become a "multi-crown" plant.
2.
These flowers can go to seed if left too long before burning.
Biological control:
Phone your regional council for help if ragwort is a BIG problem. The Flea
Beetles has been used
for a number of years, and with good results.
Giant
Buttercup:
This weed is very tolerant of moist conditions. It's a big problem in some
areas, where there are paddocks of yellow!!
(Selling buttercup flower contaminated hay is blamed for it's spread.)
Controlling buttercup is a challenge.
There are herbicides on the market which are effective, but pastures may need
several treatments. Furthermore some buttercups have become resistant to some
herbicides.
**If it has spiky leaves, and the the plant sits well above the
ground then it's giant buttercup. If it is a flatter plant, then it's creeping
buttercup.
Creeping buttercup:
Ranunculaceae repens
This weed has a solon system allowing it to spread quickly. It tolerates mowing.
Choose a herbicide that is gentle on clovers.
Broom:This
scrub weeds is actually a legume.
The
Dandelion
family.
Dandelion:(Taraxacum officinale)
The yellow flower with a hollow stem that leaks a white fluid when cut; and the
very familiar seed that floats in the breeze.
It's said to be a very common, (and found all over the world) I looked for
dandelion to take a photo, and couldn't find one.
It does look unsightly in green pasture. It persists after topping, and lawn
mowing!!
Most herbicides that are lethal to dandelions are also very damaging to clovers.
Catsear.
Hawkbit:
(Leontondon taraxacoides)
Is often seen growing in low fertility pastures. It has a deep tap root and
therefore continues to grow, and seed during
drought conditions. Animals will eat it.
By increasing the fertility of your soil you will encourage the growth of
pasture.
Consider re-grassing. Spray the area with glyphosate prior to ploughing, or
direct drilling.
Hawkesbeard
-Weeds with daisy
like flowers.
Daisy
Oxeye daisy. (Luecanthemum vulgare)
 This
weed is much larger, and taller than the common daisy. Cattle wont eat it,
but sheep will.
There is so much stalk this plant, rather than leaves.. that
spraying without damaging the
clover is nearly an impossibility. (even with spot spraying) Plants may need to
be re-sprayed.
With a cluster growing under the fenceline, I resorted to adding a
penetrant, and gently spot spraying.
I successfully killed the daisy. I'm sure some clover would have
been coated also. The additive was not cheap.
Weed wiping with escort is another option.
Stinking mayweed. (Anthemis cotula)
 Stinking
mayweed has a strong smell when crushed. It looks very like scentless
chamomile.
It can emerge where there has been pasture damage.
Animals wont eat it, so being an annual it will persists until it dies.
Improving the density of pasture will minimize contamination.
If necessary most common sprays will effectively kill stinking mayweed.
-Other common
weeds.
Dock: Rumex
conglomeratus
 These are several dock species growing in New Zealand.
Their spread:
The stock eat the plant, and the dock seeds pass though the animal. The dock
seeds arrive on
the ground
complete with its own mound of fertiliser!!!. This explains the high
population of dock plants
along the paths cattle take.
Dock do need to be destroyed prior to them going to seed.
There are herbicides on the market especially for dock. They can be spot
sprayed with
common sprays.
Nettle: (aka stinging
nettle) Urtica urens
Hemlock
Making:
Hay & Silage
Small bales are easy to lug around, and to split up and feed out from the back
of a 4 wheeler.
The large 'squares' may be segmented for feeding out also.
To feed out the 'big rounds' a bike towed, or tractor 'feed out' make the task
simpler.
Hay:
Ideally
hay should be leafy, a bright green, and have a pleasant smell.
This describes hay has been dried
rapidly,
It also has a high feed value.
Hay that has caught the rain shortly after cutting may
have minimal damage, unlike hay that has delayed drying.(no wind) and has been
exposed
to humidity, or rain. With an extended period for drying hay can become
discoloured, and have a lower feed value. Don't sell off hay containing
weed flowers.
Damp hay can become mouldy. Moldy hay can cause abortions in pregnant
cattle.
A
very helpful site with pictures of haymaking:
http://www.ukagriculture.com/crops/hay_making.cfm
Silage, Baleage (briefly):
This is cut when the grass is leafy, and highly digestible.
If it can be cut on a sunny morning following several sunny days then the sugar
levels will be good.
If several sunny days cant be
organised!! then cut after 4 hours of sunlight. Avoid wilting for too
long in order to maintain a good sugar content.
Seal as soon as possible after baling or stacking to keep out the oxygen. (This
rapidly provides ideal conditions for the
bacteria to convert the sugars into lactic acid, thus preventing protein losses
in the feed)
There are additives available if making silage from less than ideal pasture.
(e.g. acids, bacterial inoculants, and sugars
(e.g. molasses) to increase the amount of sugar for conversion into lactic acid.
When feeding out:
Exposing the silage, baleage to the air can cause it to break down. After
feeding out a portion of the stack or bale,
the remainder needs to be sealed.
Don't let stock near old, or ruined silage, baleage.
Deferred Grazing:
This is a 'no machinery' way of saving surplus
pasture. You simply shut the paddock up. (Keep the paddock out of
the rotation).. The aim: to feed the saved growth later on when there is a
possibility of a feed deficit. When fed out it is as
a feed supplement. (a portion fed out daily in addition to the stocks normal
rotation)
The Advantages:
Low cost. (No machinery used)
This method can allow pasture to reseed, providing pastures are shut up during
the grass's reproductive stage and fed out only
when the seed is mature. (When it sheds easily from the seed head) Pastures do
very well the following season if this
method is used.
Stock familiar with lush pasture may balk at this stalky pasture on 'offer'
initially. Pasture and stock health are not
disadvantaged by deferred grazing.
Glossary:
Anaerobic:
without
oxygen.
Annuals: Annuals
complete their growth cycle in a single growth season.
Auricle:
The turned
portion of the leaf blade where it leaves the leaf sheath at the collar.
Biennials: Take two
growing seasons to complete their life cycle. There are no true biennial
grasses.
Bunchgrass:
Grass that
propagates by seed and basal tillering only (no rhizomes), forms clumps, not
sod.
Collar:
The point
where the leaf separates from the stem.
Cool Season Grass:
Grass
species with rapid growth during the cool, moist period of the year. (is usually
dormant during hot weather.)
Crown:
The base
just above the ground part of the grass plant. (at junction of roots and
shoots.)
Culm:
another name for the stem in grasses.
Cultivar: Lines of a
particular plant species that have been bred, or selected for particular traits.
Ecosystem (Ecology):
The system of relationships between animals and plants
Fungus:(dictionary)A
plant without leaves, flowers or roots, that reproduces by spores.(incl moulds,
yeasts, and mushrooms.
Hydrophonic: Plants
grown in an aerated liquid that supplies all the nutrients needed for growth.
Indigenous:
Organisms that are native to a specific environment.
Inflorescence:
The
flowering portion of the grass. Also called a seed head.
Inoculants:
Inoculate: To introduce helpful or necessary bacteria. Eg bacteria: for the
soil, or seeds eg rhizobia.
Internode:
The area of the stem between two joints or nodes.
Leaf
blade:
The portion of the grass blade that separates from the stem at an angle, above
the collar.
Leaf sheath:
Portion of the grass blade that begins at the node and that wraps around the
stem below the collar.
Ligule:
The outgrowth of the upper and inner side of the grass leaf where it joins the
leaf sheath. It supports the leaf as it grows.
Micronutrients:
Elements needed for plant growth but are required in small amounts.
Nitrogen: A
colourless odourless gas. Essential for plants and animals. = 4/5 of the air.
Nitrogen Cycle:
(dictionary)A natural cycle by which nitrates in the soil derived from dead
organic matter, are absorbed by
plants and reduced to nitrates again when the plants and animals feeding on them
die and decay.
Nitrogen Fixation:
Clover has a symbiotic relationship with a rhizobia bacteria. These bacteria fix
the atmospheric nitrogen then
release it to the clover plant. Grass also takes advantage of plant available
nitrogen.
Node: The joints of the grass stem, supporting a new leaf , punctuated by
knobby swelling.
Paddock:
In New
Zealand: An area of land divided by a fence.. Used for grazing animals.
Perennial:
a plant that continues to grow for at least three years.
Persist:
Describes a
hardy plant with uninterrupted growth.
Photosynthesis: A process in which plants convert the suns energy into the
organic components they need for growth.
Petiole:
Leaf stalk
that attaches legume leaf blade to the stem.
Rhizobia (rhizobium):
It is a bacteria that lives in soil. It infects the roots of legumes and
produces root nodules (nodulation)
The rhyzobium have a symbiotic relationship with legumes.
Rhizome:
Underground
stem, usually horizontal and capable of producing new shoots and roots at the
nodes.
Sod:
Top few
centimeters of soil held together with plant roots. (a clump)
'Shutting up' 'Shut up':
Done to keep pasture/a paddock out of the rotation in order to grow the grass
for hay, silage, or defer
the grazing.
Stolon:
Trailing or
lateral stem forming at or below the soil surface. Can send up new shoots at the
nodes.
Symbiosis:
A relationship between two organisms where each of them benefit.
Tillering:
To put out new plant shoots from the root.
Topping: Mowing off
the seed head and stalks in pasture, thus the pasture becomes lush palatable,
and has a higher feed value.
Toxin: a poisonous
substance.
Warm
Season Grass:
Grass
species that grows most rapidly during the warmer part of the year.
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